[27], He was next engaged in a war with Gabii, one of the Latin cities, which had rejected the Latin treaty with Rome. It had shown that it was capable of pitting its armies successfully against the dominant military powers of the Mediterranean, and further showed that the Greek kingdoms were incapable of defending their colonies in Italy and abroad. He took the wealthy town of Suessa Pometia, with the spoils of which he commenced the erection of the Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus which his father had vowed. [77][79][80] Despite these victories, Pyrrhus found his position in Italy untenable. Although some histories have been lost, such as Trajan's account of the Dacian Wars, and others, such as Rome's earliest histories, are at least semi-apocryphal, the extant histories of Rome's military history are extensive. [181] Rome was plagued by several slave uprisings during this period, in part because in the past century vast tracts of land had been given to veterans who farmed by use of slaves and who came to greatly outnumbered their Roman masters. Seven years after their defeat, with Roman dominance of the area looking assured, the Samnites rose again and defeated the Romans at the Battle of Camerinum in 298 BC, to open the Third Samnite War. [145][147] Macedonia was forced to sign the Treaty of Tempea, in which it lost all claim to territory in Greece and Asia, and had to pay a war indemnity to Rome. Although they lost militarily, the Socii achieved their objectives with the legal proclamations of the Lex Julia and Lex Plautia Papiria, which granted citizenship to more than 500,000 Italians.[187]. [201] Following a consular term, he was then appointed to a five-year term as Proconsular Governor of Transalpine Gaul (current southern France) and Illyria (the coast of Dalmatia). Rome steadfastly refused to negotiate with Pyrrhus as long as his army remained in Italy. [204] In 55 and 54 BC he made two expeditions to Britain. After the Macedonians had been defeated in the Second Macedonian War in 197 BC, the Greek city-state of Sparta stepped into the partial power vacuum in Greece. After early Sassanid successes including the Battle of Amida in 359 AD and the Siege of Pirisabora in 363 AD,[345] Emperor Julian met Shapur in 363 AD in the Battle of Ctesiphon outside the walls of the Persian capital. Over the years, Rome had expanded along the southern Iberian coast until in 211 BC it captured the city of Saguntum. The conflicts with Pyrrhus would have a great effect on Rome. Now that the Romans and Gauls had blooded one another, intermittent Roman-Gallic wars were to continue between the two in Italy for more than two centuries, including the Battle of the Allia,[52] the Battle of Lake Vadimo,[52] the Battle of Faesulae in 225 BC, the Battle of Telamon in 224 BC, the Battle of Clastidium in 222 BC, the Battle of Cremona in 200 BC, the Battle of Mutina in 194 BC, the Battle of Arausio in 105 BC, and the Battle of Vercellae in 101 BC. Although some histories have been lost, such as Trajan's account of the Dacian Wars, and others, such as Rome's earliest histories, are at least semi-apocryphal, the extant histories of Rome's military history are extensive. Tarquin also agreed to a peace with the Aequi, and renewed the treaty of peace between Rome and the Etruscans. [181] The opening action of the Cimbrian War, the Battle of Noreia in 112 BC, ended in defeat and near disaster for the Romans. The Roman Empire at its greatest extent under Trajan in 117 AD, Marcomannic Wars (participating Roman units), Secure from interior enemies, Rome achieved great territorial gains in both the East and the West. The core of the campaign history of the Roman military is an aggregate of different accounts of the Roman military's land battles, from its initial defense against and subsequent conquest of the city's hilltop neighbors on the Italian peninsula, to the ultimate struggle of the Western Roman Empire for its existence against invading Huns, Vandals and Germanic tribes. In the Battle of Forum Gallorum Antony, besieging Caesar's assassin Decimus Brutus in Mutina, defeated the forces of the consul Pansa, who was killed, but Antony was then immediately defeated by the army of the other consul, Hirtius. [322] The Goths remained a major threat to the Empire but directed their attacks away from Italy itself for several years after their defeat. [141] A treaty was drawn up between Rome and Macedon at Phoenice in 205 BC which promised Rome a small indemnity,[125] formally ending the First Macedonian War. His military ability was tested by an attack from the Sabines. Although the crisis of the 3rd century was not the absolute beginning of Rome's decline, it nevertheless did impose a severe strain on the empire as Romans waged war on one another as they had not done since the last days of the Republic. Rome's borders in the east were indirectly governed through a system of client states for some time, leading to less direct campaigning than in the west in this period.[283]. Despite his military success, or probably because of it, fear spread of Caesar, now the primary figure of the Roman state, becoming an autocratic ruler and ending the Roman Republic. The second consular army duly defeated the Macedonians at the Battle of Pydna in 168 BC[154][156] and the Macedonians, lacking the reserve of the Romans and with King Perseus captured,[157] duly capitulated, ending the Third Macedonian War.[158]. Rome had all but completely defeated the Samnites, mastered its fellow Latin towns, and greatly reduced Etruscan power in the region. After this turmoil, Severus faced no more internal threats for the rest of his reign,[336] and the reign of his successor Caracalla passed uninterrupted for a while until he was murdered by Macrinus,[336] who proclaimed himself emperor. Further naval victories followed at the Battle of Tyndaris and Battle of Cape Ecnomus. During a period of civil upheaval in Persia, emperor Carus led a successful campaign into Persia essentially uncontested, sacking Ctesiphon in 283 AD. In the Battle of Locus Castorum the Othonians had the better of the fighting,[293] and Vitellius' troops retreated to Cremona. [25] According to the Fasti Triumphales, Servius celebrated three triumphs over the Etruscans, including on 25 November 571 BC and 25 May 567 BC (the date of the third triumph is not legible on the Fasti). Despite being defeated in Iberia in the Battle of Baecula, Hasdrubal managed to break through into Italy only to be defeated decisively by Gaius Claudius Nero and Marcus Livius Salinator on the Metaurus River.[108]. The ambitious Octavian built a power base and then launched a campaign against Mark Antony. Pompey's death did not see the end of the civil wars since initially Caesar's enemies were manifold and Pompey's supporters continued to fight on after his death. [193][194] It supposedly took Pompey just forty days to clear the western portion of the western Mediterranean of pirates,[195][198] and restore communication between Iberia, Africa, and Italy. [217] It was always an uncomfortable alliance given that Crassus and Pompey intensely disliked one another. [135][244][245] Despite the loss of a large army almost to the man of Varus' famous defeat at the hands of the Germanic leader Arminius in the Battle of the Teutoburg Forest in 9 AD,[246][247][248] Rome recovered and continued its expansion up to and beyond the borders of the known world. In 69 AD, Marcus Salvius Otho, governor of Lusitania, had the Emperor Galba murdered[285][286] and claimed the throne for himself. [75][77][78][78] Despite these victories, Pyrrhus found his position in Italy untenable. However, after this low point Caesar came back to defeat the Pompeian army of Metellus Scipio in the Battle of Thapsus, after which the Pompeians retreated yet again to Iberia. The core of the campaign history of the Roman military is an aggregate of different accounts of the Roman military's land battles, from its initial defense against and subsequent conquest of the city's hilltop neighbors on the Ita… In a pattern familiar from the Punic Wars, the Romans came into conflict with him after the two states' spheres of influence began to overlap. [129] By 179 BC, the Romans had mostly succeeded in pacifying the region and bringing it under their control. By 59 BC an unofficial political alliance known as the First Triumvirate was formed between Gaius Julius Caesar, Marcus Licinius Crassus, and Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus to share power and influence. [89] The war saw land battles in Sicily early on, such as the Battle of Agrigentum, but the theatre shifted to naval battles around Sicily and Africa. The Roman people were by the 5th century "bereft of their military ethos"[349] and the Roman army itself a mere supplement to federated troops of Goths, Huns, Franks and others fighting on their behalf. Fearing the Spartans would take increasing control of the region, the Romans drew on help from allies to prosecute the Roman-Spartan War, defeating a Spartan army at the Battle of Gythium in 195 BC. [143] In the Battle of the Aous Roman forces under Titus Quinctius Flamininus defeated the Macedonians,[145] and in a second larger battle under the same opposing commanders in 197 BC, in the Battle of Cynoscephalae,[146] Flamininus again beat the Macedonians decisively. After swiftly recovering from the sack of Rome,[60] the Romans immediately resumed their expansion within Italy. However, it took two further defeats at the Battle of Nicaea later that year and the Battle of Issus the following year, for Niger to be destroyed. [38] One by one, Rome defeated both the persistent Sabines and the local cities that were either under Etruscan control or else Latin towns that had cast off their Etruscan rulers, as had Rome. In 337 AD, Shapur II broke the peace and began a twenty-six year conflict, attempting with little success to conquer Roman fortresses in the region. The Alamanni seized the opportunity to launch a major invasion of Gaul and northern Italy. However, the south of Italy was controlled by the Greek colonies of Magna Grecia[70] who had been allied to the Samnites, and continued Roman expansion brought the two into inevitable conflict.[71][72]. [155] He also allied himself with the warlike Bastarnae,[155] and both this and his actions in Greece possibly violated the treaty signed with the Romans by his father or, if not, certainly was not "behaving as [Rome considered] a subordinate ally should". [348] Militarily, however, the Empire finally fell after first being overrun by various non-Roman peoples and then having its heart in Italy seized by Germanic troops in a revolt. [117], In the three battles of Nola, Roman general Marcus Claudius Marcellus managed to hold off Hannibal but then Hannibal smashed a succession of Roman consular armies at the First Battle of Capua, the Battle of the Silarus, the Second Battle of Herdonia, the Battle of Numistro and the Battle of Asculum. Early in his reign Tarquinius Superbus, Rome's seventh and final king, called a meeting of the Latin leaders at which he persuaded them to renew their treaty with Rome and become her allies rather than her enemies, and it was agreed that the troops of the Latins would attend at a grove sacred to the goddess Ferentina on an appointed day to form a united military force with the troops of Rome. These accounts were written by … [53] The Romans met them in pitched battle at the Battle of the Allia[51][52] around 390–387 BC. However, the Visigoths were defeated in battle that summer near the modern Italian-Slovenian border and then routed in the Battle of Naissus[320] that September by Gallienus, Claudius and Aurelian, who then turned and defeated the Alemanni at the Battle of Lake Benacus. This pattern did not break until Octavian (later Caesar Augustus) ended it by becoming a successful challenger to the Senate's authority, and was made princeps (emperor). [298] Vespasian's troops then attacked Cremona itself,[299] which surrendered. The Parthians forced Armenia into submission from 37 AD[284] but in 47 AD the Romans retook control of the kingdom and offered it client kingdom status. [110][111] Hannibal's success continued with victories in the Battle of the Trebia,[110][112] the Battle of Lake Trasimene, where he ambushed an unsuspecting Roman army,[113][114] and the Battle of Cannae,[115][116] in what is considered one of the great masterpieces of tactical art, and for a while "Hannibal seemed invincible",[108] able to beat Roman armies at will. The historicity and exact dates are uncertain, and some historians do not consider that the Empire fell at this point. After the Macedonians had been defeated in the Second Macedonian War in 197 BC, the Greek city-state of Sparta stepped into the partial power vacuum in Greece. [172] Jugurtha was finally captured not in battle but by treachery,[173][174] ending the war. These wars, starting in 264 BC[87] were probably the largest conflicts of the ancient world yet[88] and saw Rome become the most powerful state of the Western Mediterranean, with territory in Sicily, North Africa, Iberia, and with the end of the Macedonian wars (which ran concurrently with the Punic wars) Greece as well. [223] The triumvirate was shattered and conflict was inevitable. The new war in Sicily against Carthage, a great naval power,[91] forced Rome to quickly build a fleet and train sailors. Unable to take the city by force of arms, Tarquin had his son, Sextus Tarquinius, infiltrate the city, gain the trust of its people and command of its army. [197] Rome had destroyed many of the states that had previously policed the Mediterranean with fleets, but had failed to step into the gap created. Mithridates antagonised Rome by seeking to expand his kingdom,[190] and Rome for her part seemed equally keen for war and the spoils and prestige that it might bring. [162] The Jugurthine War of 111–104 BC was fought between Rome and Jugurtha of Numidia and constituted the final Roman pacification of Northern Africa,[163] after which Rome largely ceased expansion on the continent after reaching natural barriers of desert and mountain. Corbulo succeeded in returning Armenia to Roman client status, where it remained for the next century. [179] The opening action of the Cimbrian War, the Battle of Noreia in 112 BC, ended in defeat and near disaster for the Romans. Septimius Severus and Pescennius Niger, both rebel generals declared to be emperors by the troops they commanded, clashed for the first time in 193 AD at the Battle of Cyzicus, in which Niger was defeated. However, rebellions in Babylonia and the Jewish revolts in Judea made it difficult to maintain the captured province and the territories were abandoned. [339] Several succeeding generals avoided battling usurpers for the throne by being murdered by their own troops before battle could commence. He is said to have shown valour in the campaign, and to have routed a great army of the enemy. Despite their successes, their mastery of the whole of Italy was by no means assured. In just 4 years, a state without any real naval experience had managed to better a major regional maritime power in battle. [319] The Goths first appeared in history as a distinct people in this invasion of 268 AD when they swarmed over the Balkan peninsula and overran the Roman provinces of Pannonia and Illyricum and even threatened Italia itself. The Cherusci, Bructeri, Tencteri, Usipi, Marsi, and Chatti of Varus' time had by the 3rd century either evolved into or been displaced by a confederacy or alliance of Germanic tribes collectively known as the Alamanni,[308] first mentioned by Cassius Dio describing the campaign of Caracalla in 213 AD. [138][139] However, Rome discovered the agreement when Philip's emissaries, along with emissaries from Hannibal, were captured by a Roman fleet. After overthrowing the Parthian confederacy,[308][338] the Sassanid Empire that arose from its remains pursued a more aggressive expansionist policy than their predecessors[339][340] and continued to make war against Rome. A few towns and cities held out for a few years before falling to the Romans, leading to the Siege of Masada in 73 AD[305][306] and the Second Siege of Jerusalem.[307]. [227][228] Caesar's army was still under-strength, with certain units remaining in Gaul,[227] but on the other hand Pompey himself only had a small force at his command, and that with uncertain loyalty having served under Caesar. After the defeat of the Seleucid Emperor Antiochus III the Great in the Roman-Syrian War (Treaty of Apamea, 188 BC) in the eastern sea, Rome emerged as the dominant Mediterranean power and the most powerful city in the classical world. In 134 BC, the Consul Scipio Aemilianus finally succeeded in suppressing the rebellion following the successful Siege of Numantia. [195][196] It supposedly took Pompey just forty days to clear the western portion of the western Mediterranean of pirates,[197][200] and restore communication between Iberia, Africa, and Italy. [205] After slaughtering the Helvetii tribe,[206] Caesar prosecuted a "long, bitter and costly"[207] campaign against other tribes across the breadth of Gaul, many of whom had fought alongside Rome against their common enemy the Helvetii,[204] and annexed their territory to that of Rome. [117] In 203 BC at the Battle of Bagbrades the invading Roman army under Scipio Africanus Major defeated the Carthaginian army of Hasdrubal Gisco and Syphax and Hannibal was recalled to Africa. [313] The Carpi and Sarmatians whom Rome had held at bay were replaced by the Goths and likewise the Quadi and Marcomanni that Rome had defeated were replaced by the greater confederation of the Alamanni.[314]. [190][191] After conquering western Anatolia (modern Turkey) in 88 BC, Roman sources claim that Mithridates ordered the killing of the majority of the 80,000 Romans living there. In the Battle of Turin Constantine defeated Maxentius, and in the Battle of Tzirallum, Licinius defeated Maximinus. This fear drove a group of senators naming themselves The Liberators to assassinate him in 44 BC. Military History: Sep 26, 2020: Which Roman military proved to be better at keeping at bay the armies of the steppes and the tribes of europe and consistently beating off invaders? The first Punic war was set on the backdrop of Sicily and its smaller surrounding islands. [255], After Caesar's preliminary low-scale invasions of Britain,[256][257] the Romans invaded in force in 43 AD,[258] forcing their way inland through several battles against British tribes, including the Battle of the Medway,[258] the Battle of the Thames, the Battle of Caer Caradoc and the Battle of Mona. [107] Hannibal then raised an army in Iberia and famously crossed the Italian Alps with elephants to invade Italy. As before, once opposition to the triumvirate was crushed, it started to tear at itself. These forces drove out the Roman garrisons near the Rhine and defeated a Roman army at the Battle of Castra Vetera, after which many Roman troops along the Rhine and in Gaul defected to the Batavian cause. In 107 BC, all citizens, regardless of their wealth or social class, were made eligible for entry into the Roman army. 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