It examines the socialization process as more one of contestation between different normative systems and has broadened the scope of analysis to include attempts at socializing both powerful and weaker actors. At the same time, the International Campaign to Abolish Nuclear Weapons (ICAN) had successfully pushed for the UN to adopt the Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons in 2020. In other words, they worry that mutual constitution implies that actors have a difficult time stepping outside the bounds of their social/normative context to decide what is right to do. Instead, practices are the result of inarticulate, practical knowledge that makes what is done appear self-evident or commensenical.. (2010). The concept of power: A constructivist analysis. Recent studies have taken the generic nature of norms more seriously and have subsequently focused on how actors must operationalize their normative context to take specific actions (Hoffmann 2005; Van Kersbergen and Verbeek 2007; Sandholtz 2008). While some of the major criticisms of constructivist thought should be at the forefront when considering security and military problems through this lens, the potential to see the world in more dynamic terms is one of constructivisms leading contributions. This analytic move facilitated conversation and competition with rational/material theoretical competitors. Ideas about whether actors reason about norms or through norms can be linked to behavioral logics, which provide conceptions of how actors and norms are linked. This review examines the constructivist norms-oriented literature from early efforts geared at gaining acceptance in a field dominated by the neorealist/neoliberal debates, through the recent emergence of agendas focused on norm compliance and contestation. Norms are also expectations about behavior (these are called regulatory norms because they define acceptable behavior). Regional order and peaceful change: Security communities as a via media in international relations theory. forthcoming). Social constructivism primarily seeks to demonstrate how the core aspects of the international relations are contrary to the assumptions of Neorealism and Neoliberalism within the frame of social construction, taking up forms of ongoing processes of social practice and interaction. Two strands of research, on the relations between strategic behaviour and international norms and between rationalism and constructivism, serve as examples of promising research in constructivist international relations theory. Percy, S. (2016). Norms in international relations: Some conceptual and methodological reflections. Early constructivist work in the 1980s and early 1990s sought to establish a countervailing approach to the material and rational theories that dominated the study of international relations. In both cases, compliance with an international norm behaving in a way that matches the behavioral strictures of the norm is expressly theorized and variation in compliance is explained not by pitting constructivist and rationalist/materialist variables, but by examining processes by which domestic actors interpret and manipulate international and local norms. Journal of European Public Policy, 6(4), 669681. Ones position on this spectrum of reasoning about norms or reasoning through norms has consequences. https://www.reuters.com/article/us-iran-saddam-idUSTRE56113O20090702. Mearsheimer, J. J., & Walt, S. M. (2003). 394395). Constructivism demonstrates the flexibility and critical stance that characterizes the reflectivist theories by stressing the socially constructed aspect of international realities and highlighting the ever-changing nature of the study of International Relations. Scholars such as Adler (2008), Pouliot (2008), and Hopf (2002) found this reflective aspect of the logic of appropriateness to allow for too much independence between agents and structures. Prominent in the initial empirical norms research in this vein were studies that examined how given norms in a particular community diffused to actors outside the community (e.g., Risse-Kappen 1994; Keck and Sikkink 1998; Risse, Ropp, and Sikkink 1999; Checkel 2001; Johnston 2001). Wendt tends to view state identity in a singular way which can omit its complexity. Moreover, for some, constructivism is problematic because it is seen as apolitical and its efforts to form a via media with rationalism bring the state back in (Weber 1999; Zehfuss 2002). International Politics, 53(2), 176197. Cham: Springer. Conventional constructivism is not interested in replacing one reality of world politics with another. (2001). European Security, 27(3), 356373. How are self-understandings and identity constituted in the international realm? Constructivism had been marginalized by these mainstream theories because it focused on social construction instead of material construction (Barkin, 2017). Certainly actors are strategic, but constructivist logic dictates that the normative context defines and shapes that strategic behavior (Muller 2004). Sookermany, A. M. (2021). (Wendts book is vital reading for all constructivist scholars and his ontological and epistemological position on constructivism is set out more fully here. Issues such as those discussed immediately above raise the third criticism about constructivism, that "a weak or at least a controversial epistemology has become the basis for a strong pedagogic policy" (Phillips 1995, p. 11)).The primary influence underpinning much of the theoretical commitments of constructivist pedagogy was a highly influential paper written by Posner et al. In addition to considering how the two types of norm dynamics are related, the current norms literature brings traditional open questions in constructivism into sharp relief. How militaries assess and interpret threat can be related to culture, intersubjective meanings, and social networks and understandings. Tannenwald, N. (2018). In correlation to this, it would be fruitful to acknowledge the role of constructivism in international relations theory, as one could argue it is closely related to this analysis, where one may draw parallels between Norway and Sweden in the comprehension of the research. It is especially relevant and pertinent as a tool of criticism of widely held empirical and normative theories. For neoconservatives, Saddam Hussein represented a threat because he was seen as an irrational actor that has been hostile toward the USA (Tun 2005). Second, and more significantly, both the norm compliance and norm change research agendas engage seriously with notions of normative contestation, directly problematizing aspects of norm dynamics that tended to be held constant in earlier work. In addition, taking constructivist thought to its logical conclusion, there is no such thing as nonnormative behavior or pure material self-interest independent of a normative context. But norms are never static and this meaning has also changed over time for instance, with the rise of Responsibility to Protect (R2P), sovereignty as an institution has become contingent on states fulfilling certain criteria such as not committing human rights abuse. Identifies the norms and ideas associated with them. But the nuclear issue is also important because it shows how competing ideas about norms co-exist or contrast for example, former US President Donald Trump tried to change the norm around the use of nuclear weapons, arguing for the ability to use low yield nuclear weapons and the 2018 Nuclear Posture Review returned to the idea that nuclear superiority mattered (Tannenwald 2018). Where liberals would declare that the west won, proving capitalism and democracy were the only workable ways to organize societies, in a constructivist reading, the end of the Cold War was largely down to the changes that were taking place in the former Soviet Union under Gorbachev (Risse-Kappen 1994). 3536). European Journal of International Relations, 12(3), 341370. There is an implicit equivalence made between contestation that goes on within a normative community (generated by the gap between general rules and specific situations) and contestation that occurs between different normative communities (inevitable tension between norms). Under a constructivist lens, the primacy of state survival in realist thought also undergoes reconsideration. Wendt, A. Critics found this dual understanding of the logic of appropriateness wanting and thus developed additional behavioral logics that modeled differing motivations and modes of behavior more explicitly. Risse-Kappen, T. (1994). An example of this can be seen in the rationalist understanding of behavior in warfare. Those facts that rely on human agreement (institutional facts) differ from brute facts (like mountains, for example), which do not need human institutions for their existence. Onuf, N. (2013). Klotz (1995), for instance, chronicled how the anti-apartheid norm shaped the expectations and actions of the US towards South Africa in the 1980s. Nordic strategic culture. London: Routledge. Abstract. 2. As Tannenwald says, [e]ven as states pursue their interests, they do so within a normative structure (2017, p. 17). There. If material is not included in the chapter's Creative Commons license and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. Prominent in this part of the literature was Finnemore and Sikkinks (1998) development of the norm life cycle whereby normative entrepreneurs (see also Nadelmann 1990) work to persuade states of the appropriateness of a new norm and serve as a catalyst for a cascade of new normative understandings. Instead of calculating what is best for improving its utility, an actor motivated by the logic of appropriateness will instead reason what actors like me should do. This study focuses on the definition of the social constructivism approach within the scope of International Relations (IR) theories and the discussions on this approach. In A. M. Sookermany (Ed. Finnemore, M., & Sikkink, K. (1998). Constructivist International Relations theorists tend to use concepts of socially constructed identities, ideas and norms to empirically and analytically examine . What agents want and who they are may be constituted by social structures, but there is never a complete sublimation of agents they retain an ability to reason about constitutive social structures and make relatively independent behavioral choices. [3] In essence, these scholars and those who draw upon their work consider that much of behavior in world politics arises from ingrained, unconscious motivations either habits or practices that drive precognitive behavior. In his view, theories of cultures can not supplant theories of politics, and no casual theory of identity construction exists. Doing so has opened up the field to bring in different explanations of global politics that can delve deeper into how culture and identity play a role in determining state interests. More info. States interactions are socially constructed. They were aware of and noted the simplifications being made caveating their work with notations about the fluid and inherently contested nature of norms. Critiques Lack a theory of agency: - According to Hopt (The Promise of Constructivism in international relations theory, 1998), constructivism is an approach, not a theory; or at most a theory of process. European Journal of International Relations, 3(3), 319363. Yet, Wittgenstein's notion of family resemblances helps in understanding why an essence of constructivism need not be found. (1992). Those who study compliance realize that actors are constituted by norms and cannot fully separate themselves from their normative context. Altmetric. Not all states respond to external phenomena in the same way, which invokes a need to consider how domestic and cultural factors shape the identity and interests of actors. What makes the UK feel safe in the matter of the USAs nuclear arsenal is that these states have a shared identity centuries of connection, friendship, shared beliefs and language, and similar cultures. Staff & Defence College, Norwegian Defence University College, Oslo, Norway, Norwegian Defence University College / Norwegian Military Academy, Oslo, Norway. Katzenstein, P. J. It is ideas, according to constructivists, that play a large role in determining how actors act. The causes of the Iraq war. Wiener (2004:198) warns us that studying norms as causes for behavior leaves situations of conflicting or changing meanings of norms analytically underestimated. Certainly norms exhibit stability, as they are recognizable by the common expectations that they structure but, paradoxically, norms are also in a constant state of dynamism and flux. To be specific, I navigated core tenets of constructivism in terms of its ontology, epistemology, and methodology, respectively. The link was not copied. Meanings: socially constructed. Berger, T. U. While it is beyond the scope of this chapter to adequately cover these approaches, the Baumann chapter in this volumediscusses securitization; for works on ontological security that speak to international security and aspects of the military, see Mitzen (2006), Krahmann (2018), and Mlksoo (2018).) For example, norms can challenge practices and beliefs that are seen to be no longer fit for purpose. Culture can refer to symbolic or evaluative standards that guide relations and provide meaning. First, norms are relatively stable if they were not, it would be hard to justify or observe this analytic category. Your current browser may not support copying via this button. Keywords Constructivists International norms International relations Rationalism Strategic behaviour It was a tool for constructivists to show that ideas, norms, and morals mattered vis--vis rationalist variables in explanations of world political phenomena. Constructivism is a structural theory of the international system that makes the following core claims: (1) states are the principal units of analysis for international political theory; (2) the key structures in the states system are intersubjective rather than material; and. 1999). (Eds.). Poststructuralism in international relations: An exploration of discourse and the military. On the contrary, early, empirically oriented constructivists worked to demonstrate that shared ideas about appropriate state behavior had a profound impact on the nature and functioning of world politics. As political processes such as the 2008 economic crisis in Europe and Brexit show, theorising a polity. Farrell, T. (2002). The main empirical focus tended to be on either the development of a European polity (e.g., Checkel 2001) or on attempts at socializing Southern states into (relatively) universal international norms like human rights and sovereign statehood (Finnemore 1996; Risse et al. New York: Routledge. https://doi.org/10.1080/23340460.2018.1533385. More recent constructivist norms scholarship has revisited this perspective on social norms, positing a different set of normative dynamics more focused on contestation over social norms. It was first coined by Nicholas Onuf in 1989 in his book " The World of our making " where he put. The UK and the USA are part of NATO, so share alliance membership, but have also stood shoulder to shoulder in conflicts like Afghanistan and Iraq in response to global terrorism, which both states understand to be an existential threat to their way of life. Meaning is socially constructed this epistemological claim suggests that depending on ones position and perspective, knowledge and meaning produce different interpretations (Guzzini 2005, p. 498). Norms and regulatory instruments around the use of PMSCs and in what capacity they are used have emerged with the view to regulating them (Percy 2016, p. 221). Constructivism accounts for this issue by arguing that the social world is of our making (Onuf 1989). Two types of normative dynamics can be identified: the first is endogenous contestation; the second is compliance or diffusion. International norms dynamics and political change. Critiques of constructivism tend to come from three areas: rationalist criticisms, issues over how constructivists see identity, and finally, criticism that constructivism is apolitical. Constructivism relies in part on the theory of the social construction of reality, which says that whatever reality is perceived to be, for the . Epistemic communities are described by Peter Haas as networks of knowledge-based communities with an authoritative claim to policy-relevant knowledge within their domain of expertise. They share intersubjective knowledge and beliefs and a common policy enterprise, tackling specific problems in relation to their professions (2016, p. 5) to push for norm change around nuclear proliferation and to reduce the arsenal of the superpowers. Sandholtz (2008) himself proposes a cyclical model to explain the evolution of norms prohibiting wartime plunder. Rebuttals to constructivist arguments used evidence of behavior that was inconsistent with the specific and unchanging strictures of norms in question to claim that nonconstructivist (usually material or rational) factors must be the driving catalyst of political behavior and outcomes (Shannon 2000). This also goes to the foundation of questions of the causes of war. Presents a social constructivist reading of securitization theory that, besides the Copenhagen school, also includes other constructivist interpretations of security that draw on securitization and speech act theory. Another topic that requires further consideration in future research is the relationship between intersubjective and subjective reality. To be clear, constructivists have been quite good at demonstrating the replacement of one norm with another. Two have become particularly prominent compliance with the strictures of social norms and change in norms themselves. 317356). Ideas about whether actors reason about norms or through norms can be linked to underlying behavioral logics that constructivists have devised and developed since the inception of the approach. Introduction: Ideational AlliesPsychology, Constructivism, and International Relations . [1] [2] [3] The most important ideational factors are those that are collectively held; these collectively held beliefs construct the interests and identities of actors. Like its revision of anarchy as an ordering principle in international relations, constructivism also changed perceptions about the relationship between agents and structures, brought attention to how ideas matter as much as material factors, and how identity, norms, and culture shape global relations. Yet Saddam did not want to appear weak to enemies such as Iran (Allen 2009). What does it derive its name from (it's fundamental proposition)? Second, analytic tractability is necessary and is no trivial accomplishment. Thucydides the constructivist. 124). Theories of International Relations. As Sandholtz (2008:101) puts it disputes about acts are at the heart of a process that continually modifies social rules. While early constructivist theorizing proved to be an exciting new avenue for thinking about international relations in the abstract, both constructivists and their critics were eager to see constructivist theory applied empirically. (). This social learning aspect differs from realisms prescriptive approach that says nations will follow the strongest militaries to develop their strength and technological prowess with the anarchic structure of the international system guiding this logic. For the Athenians, the refusal of the Melians the much weaker party to submit and their preference for neutrality was an affront to their power. Studies of compliance and contestation must grapple with this fundamental characteristic of social norms in a more explicit way moving forward. European Review of International Studies, 3(3), 713. 1516). In the other mode, actors actively consider their normative context in an attempt to reason about the best (appropriate) course of action actors reasoning about social norms. The current literature on compliance with social norms has taken a question that motivated the socialization studies of the 1990s Why do some transnational ideas and norms find greater acceptance in a particular locale than in others? (Acharya 2004:240) in new directions. Interpreting the impact of a norm. If it was not, then the international order and what security means could be something completely different. Fierke, K. M., & Jrgensen, K. E. Even among security communities such as the Nordic states, different strategic cultures can be found because they are informed by a range of historical and cultural experiences, with different experiences of war and conflict, membership of alliances, and other factors (see special issues of Cooperation and Conflict (2005) and Global Affairs (2018) for further discussions). Clearly this is a continuum because if agents were truly independent from or entirely dependent upon social structures, we would not be talking about constructivism. New York: M. E. Sharpe. Google Scholar. As Johnston (2001:494) clarifies, socialization is aimed at creating membership in a society where the intersubjective understandings of the society become taken for granted. These studies generally began from the perspective of a single, established norm and posited mechanisms (arguing, bargaining, persuading, and learning) for how the community of norm acceptors could be enlarged (Acharya 2004). Understanding how ideas about danger and threat are socially constructed, and how states form social relations in the international system is a key starting point in discussions about global security. ), The culture of national security. In military exercises with other nations, states share practices and ideas and in doing so, learn from each other. The international system is defined by anarchy. Constructivism's approach to the subjects of threat, conflict and security in global politics originated from their fundamental emphasis on the social dimensions of international politics, thus it defined them as socially constructed elements in the process of identity formation under the influence of the norms and shared values of society. (3) state identities and interests are in important part constructed . Social Constructivist International Relations and the Military. Pouliot (2008:259) argues that most of what people do in world politics, as in any other social field, does not derive from conscious deliberation or thoughtful reflection. If the meaning of a norm can change or if different communities of actors adhere to different norms (or different versions of a norm), then norm-breaking takes on a different meaning. Bjrkdahl, A. For example, when considering what national identity means for a state like the UK, critical constructivists would include forgotten experiences or identities that make up its multicultural society, rather than just define British identity as white. ), The culture of national security: Norms and identity in world politics (pp. Social constructivism is not among the most popular theoretical approaches used in forecasting in International Relations. Power is influenced by norms, ideas, and practices; in a constructivist reading, power depends on how it is used and what it means in the interaction of states. For philosopher John Searle, language played an equally significant role. Subsequently, states do what they can to secure themselves, which often means resorting to military force. New York: Columbia University Press. Seizing the middle ground: Constructivism in world politics. Wiener (2007) has advanced what she is calling a new logic of contestedness and has explored (2004) the dynamics of interpretation and contestation in European responses to the 2003 Iraq War. The goal was to show how a target behavior can be accounted by considering the ideational context, how ideas and norms constitute interests, or how social norms influence actors understandings of the material world. Cooperation and Conflict, 40(1), 523. Roennfeldt, C. F. (2022). It then turns to a discussion of two directions currently being explored in social norms research and the open questions that remain. (2005). It will then consider some key criticisms of this approach and conclude with a short summary. Social Constructivism Summary Notes. Social Constructivism is one of international relations approach. Japan and identity change: Why it matters in international relations. The Washington Quarterly, 41(3), 89109. 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